Adrienne Farricelli CPDT-KA, Author at Daily Dog Discoveries

The Science Behind Puppy Dog Eyes

February 27, 2025 by Adrienne Farricelli CPDT-KA

You’re likely already familiar with puppy dog eyes. You know, the ultimate secret behind that irresistible, heart-melting expression our dogs gift us with every day.

Perhaps, they’re the ultimate reason that makes us hand over our last bite of steak, let our pups sleep on the couch again, and forgive them for shredding our sneakers.

But what exactly are puppy dog eyes, and how did dogs evolve to deploy them so masterfully? Let’s discover more about a dog’s expressive eyes and how they mastered the subtle art of persuasion.

What Are Puppy Dog Eyes?

Puppy dog eyes are ultimately the secret behind your dog’s soulful expression. Dogs are known for having very expressive eyes, but what makes them attractive to us humans? Maybe it’s the fact that they’re capable of moving the muscles of their eyebrows.

This happens courtesy of the dog’s levator anguli oculi medialis (LAOM) muscle. This muscle is responsible for raising the dogs’ inner eyebrow. This muscle has been believed to have evolved as a direct result of domestication.

If we carefully watch our dogs, we will notice how they move their eyebrows in a variety of contexts. We this when they’re shifting their gaze, expressing emotions, and interacting with humans.

Stanley Coren, in the book How To Speak Dog, explains how eyebrow movements can signal emotions such as perplexity and concentration, anger and fear.

What’s interesting is that a groundbreaking study by Juliane Kaminski found that dogs produce more facial expressions when a human is facing them, compared to when a human is turned away.

This tells us that their expressions are socially driven behaviors meant to capture human attention. The most commonly observed (and cherished) movement? The famous inner eyebrow raise, which makes our dog’s eyes ultimately appear larger and more infant-like. This is a trait that us humans find overwhelmingly endearing.

Puppy dog eyes — Who can resist those puppy dog eyes?

The Evolutionary Advantage of Facial Expressions

Earlier research by Waller et al demonstrated that shelter dogs who frequently raised their inner eyebrows were adopted faster.

This suggests that dogs with expressive faces had a selective advantage in human environments whether through breeding choices or simply by winning the hearts of more potential adopters.

The more often dogs made facial movements that resulted in raising their inner eyebrows, the quicker dogs were rehomed.

This makes one wonder whether dogs have learned to use their facial expressions as a way of getting what they want (human attention) or whether this is just a trait that dogs have been selectively bred for throughout the years.

Did you know? Research by Nagasawa et al revealed that upon noticing the owner’s arrival, dogs moved their left eyebrows for about half a second, suggesting a positive social emotion. They failed to move their eyebrows though in response to attractive toys or when strangers greeted the dog.

This suggests that certain eyebrow movements may be hardwired signals of affection and social bonding, rather than purely strategic manipulations.

Are Dogs Aware of Their “Eye Power?”

At this point, you may be wondering: do dogs consciously use their facial expressions to manipulate humans? Or has this become an automatic behavior due to selective breeding?

While we cannot say for certain, the fact that dogs exhibit these expressions more when humans are watching, seems to strongly suggest that dogs must understand their impact.

However, a new 2024 study from Baylor University seems to suggest that puppy dog eyes aren’t a clever evolutionary trick designed to manipulate humans, as we thought Turns out, coyotes can do it too!

Coyotes: The Unexpected Masters of Puppy Dog Eyes

The study led by Patrick Cunningham examined the levator anguli oculi medialis (LAOM) in coyotes. The findings, published in Royal Society Open Science, reveal that coyotes possess a well-developed LAOM, much like domestic dogs.

This finding now challenges the long-standing belief that s dog’s LAOM muscle evolved purely as a result of domestication. So now what?

Turns out, puppy dog eyes” are unlikely to be the evolutionary ploy meant to melt human hearts. Perhaps what we’re looking at in reality is an ancestral trait shared by multiple species in the Canis genus.

In a nutshell, before dogs ever sat by the fire begging for scraps, their wild relatives were already working the eyebrow game!

Comparing Coyotes, Dogs, and Wolves

To further test this theory, Cunningham’s team compared the facial muscles of coyotes, dogs, and gray wolves.

Interestingly, his research found that while dogs and coyotes shared a well-developed inner eyebrow-raising muscle, gray wolves either lacked the muscle entirely or had a reduced version of it.

If puppy dog eyes were truly an adaptation driven solely by human selection, wolves—who are more closely related to our dogs—would likely have retained it.

So what does this study suggest? Most likely that these canine’s facial expressions must have played a role in facilitating intraspecies communication, hunting coordination, or even social bonding within their social groups.

So rather than having evolved to make dogs look irresistibly cute to us, puppy dog eyes are likely more related to some form of social signaling among wild canids.

References

Patrick Cunningham, Mahita Shankar, Bridgett vonHoldt, Kristin E. Brzeski, Sarah S. Kienle. Coyotes can do ‘puppy dog eyes’ too: comparing interspecific variation in Canis facial expression muscles. Royal Society Open Science, 2024

Why Is My Dog So Fearful?

February 22, 2025 by Adrienne Farricelli CPDT-KA

Why Is my dog so fearful? I was asked this not too long ago, by a concerned dog owner. This is such a simple question, yet the answer is anything but!

Here’s the thing: some dogs seem to tremble at the mere rustle of a leaf, while others wouldn’t flinch even if a marching band paraded through the living room. What’s behind such a different mindset?

If you really want to understand why your pup acts like the world is ending the moment the wind changes direction, you need a little crash course in Fear 101.

This is because fear is such a complex emotion. It can significantly influence a dog’s behavior and learning processes. It can put a dent in your training and behavior modification.

Understanding this complex emotion is crucial for addressing fear-related related problems effectively.

Below is an in-depth exploration of several phenomena involved in a dog’s fear development, so let’s dig in!

What Makes a Dog Fearful?

So why is my dog so fearful? Let’s first start with some basics, fear isn’t just something a dog picks up along the way like a bad habit; sometimes, it’s “baked” right in from birth.

Other times, it may hitch a ride through life as an unwanted passenger, shaped by experiences.

We’re talking here about nature and nurture, the two faces of the coin. This is one of the most relevant topics when discussing “why is my dog so fearful?”

The Role of Nature

Fear can be inherited, courtesy of genetics. In a nutshell, fearfulness can be deeply rooted in a dog’s DNA.

When it comes to dogs, certain breeds may be more reactive because they were selectively designed to notice every tiny movement and sound.

Then there’s the unlucky roll of the genetic dice, causing dogs to simply inherit a more sensitive nervous system, which makes them more prone to fearful responses.

If a dog’s parents were anxious or reactive, their pups might come preloaded with a higher sensitivity to stress, even if they’ve never had a bad experience themselves.

I have discussed this more in depth in my article on how dogs develop fear memories. It’s an interesting topic.

The Role of Nurture

Fear doesn’t always need a genetic blueprint. Sometimes it can also hitch a ride through life as an unwanted passenger, shaped by experiences.

A single terrifying moment (like slipping on a tile floor, getting chased by an aggressive dog, or hearing fireworks) can imprint on a dog’s brain like a permanent post-it note that says: Avoid this situation at all costs.

And because the brain is wired to prioritize survival, these fear memories tend to stick.

This means that for some dogs, fear isn’t just a passing emotion. It’s a long-term companion. So whether fear is inherited or learned, it tends to settle in for the long haul.

The good news? While we might not be able to evict fear from a dog’s life entirely, we can teach dogs how to develop coping mechanisms through patience, training and behavior modification.

An infographic about nature and nurture in dogs

The Role of Missed Socialization

Socialization is a critical period, that typically takes place between 3 to 14 weeks of age. Puppies during this times are like little sponges, soaking up experiences, sights, sounds, and the general weirdness and “quirks” of human beings.

If a pup isn’t properly exposed to different people, animals, environments, and stimuli during this time, their brain doesn’t just shrug and say, “Oh well, I’ll figure it out later.”

No, instead, the fear-processing center of the dog’s brain, decides that unfamiliar things are potentially life-threatening.

Now, something I must point out is that, missed socialization windows don’t automatically mean a dog will be fearful, but they stack the odds against them.

Instead of responding to novelty with curiosity, these dogs often default to approach-avoidance behaviors. In a nutshell, they may approach and then suddenly back away or they may freeze or engage in panic reactions.

Something to point out is that, even when puppies are socialized, any overwhelming or negative experience during this critical time can leave a negative impression on the puppy, even the most confident ones.

It’s therefore important that quality is placed over quantity when it comes to the socialization period. Basically, carefully structured socialization is key. It’s not about throwing them into every situation possible, but rather setting them up for success so that every experience has a positive emotional impact.

And while you can’t time-travel back to puppyhood, you can help these dogs develop better coping skills, although in many cases, professional intervention (trainers, behaviorists, and yes, even medication) may be necessary.

Fear by Association: When a Dog’s Brain Connects the Dots

Fear by association is like your dog’s brain connecting dots. Dogs are experts at pairing experiences together, sometimes for the better (leash=happy walks), but often for the worse (leash=scary walks).

If something scary happens during a walk, the dog’s brain stamps a big “WARNING: AVOID AT ALL COSTS” label on walks, whether it makes sense or not.

But let’s look at another example, such as a fear of thunderstorms. A dog hears one loud crack of thunder while standing next to an outdoor chair.

The next time they see the outdoor chair, they panic, convinced it’s a thunder-summoning monster. The chair really did nothing wrong, but in the dog’s mind, it’s automatically “guilty” by association.

As a dog trainer, I have often encountered dogs who have started associating the yard with being shocked from an electric fence causing them to no longer want to be outside. The end result? They start having pee and poop accidents in the house.

This is a real phenomenon and the dogs impacted are referred to as “porch sitters,” by those in the field.

An Adaptive Behavior Linked to Survival

Fear by association is a type of learning that happens quickly as it’s associated with survival. In the wild, being a fast learner can mean “I get to live to see another day.”

Take a gazelle at a watering hole. One moment, he’s peacefully sipping water, and the next, a crocodile emerges from the depths. If that gazelle survives, you can bet it’s not going to stroll up to the water next time with the confidence he used to.

Instead, he hesitates, scans the surface, and maybe even waits for another animal to “test the waters” first and reassure him the area is devoid of crocs. This isn’t paranoia; it’s a survival strategy at best. Learn fast in the wild, or you risk becoming somebody’s lunch!

Dogs, of course, don’t deal with crocodiles, but their brains work in a similar fashion. A puppy that gets startled by a loud noise while meeting a new person, may instantly associate strangers with danger, even if they were friendly strangers.

The challenge is that in modern life, many of these fears aren’t actually useful. A dog that gets scared of the vet’s office after a painful shot doesn’t gain anything by avoiding medical care.

The good news is that, just as fear can be learned, new, positive associations can be made. The trick is persuading the dog that not every trip to the vet spells disaster.

Fear By Consequence: How Avoidance Behaviors Stick

Dogs don’t just learn to feel fear through associations, they also become little strategists in avoiding fear. Since running away, barking, or hiding, often makes the scary thing disappear, the dog gains a huge reward under the form of relief.

Picture this: A dog sees the mailman, panics, and barks like a maniac. The mailman, delivers the mail and then leaves. The dog doesn’t think, “Oh, that person probably had somewhere else to be.” No, their brain tells them, “I barked, and the scary person went away. Success!” Next time, I’ll bark sooner and louder.

With time and experience, the dog gets better and better at this. While at first is was all about panic: Oh no, an intruder!, now the whole situation shifts to “Oh, I know how to handle this!”

Therefore rather than waiting to feel scared, the dog may now start barking as soon as he sees the mailman. And if his barking doesn’t work right away, he may even throw in some growls for extra effect.

Again, from the outside, it looks like boldness, with the dog standing its ground. But inside? It’s still all about fear, it’s just packaged differently.

This is how a defensive response morphs into an offensive-looking one. The dog isn’t purposely picking fights; they’ve just learned that being loud and scary keeps the scary things away. It’s basically as if fear was wearing a tough-guy mask!

Breaking this pattern requires teaching the dog a fresh new perspective through controlled exposures and associative learning.

The Impact on Learning

Fear is a powerful teacher, and as we have seen, for a good reason as it helps animals, including dogs, survive.

When a dog encounters something scary, their brain works fast to find a way to escape and avoid that situation in the future. This is why fear-driven learning tends to stick so well.

Even just a single bad experience, like slipping on a vet’s exam table or getting startled by a stranger wearing a hat, can have a long-lasting impact causing the dog to strongly commit to avoidance behaviors.

The problem? As mentioned, avoidance behaviors are incredibly reinforcing. The moment a dog barks, lunges, hides, or pulls away and the scary thing disappears, they feel relief. That relief makes them more likely to repeat the behavior next time.

This fast-track learning is great for survival in the wild, but in a modern world, it creates challenges. Instead of learning how to stay calm around something that initially frightened them, the dog only learns how to make the situation go away.

The more dogs get to practice avoidance, the harder it becomes to break the cycle and introduce calm, appropriate behaviors instead.

Furthermore, high levels of arousal caused by fear disrupt a dog’s cognitive processes, making it harder for dogs to focus or learn. When fearful dogs are over threshold it therefore becomes almost impossible to train them.

Helping a fearful dog means working against their instinct to avoid and teaching them that staying calm brings better outcomes. It requires controlled exposures to what scares them, but without pushing them over the edge.

A fearful dog on owner's lap — Dogs in a fearful state often resort to instinctive responses like flight, freeze, or fight, bypassing learning mechanisms.

So Why Is My Dog So Fearful?

As seen, there are many potential causes as to why dogs are fearful. Fearful dogs are the byproduct of genetics and events that shape their behaviors.

Whether your dog’s fear is inherited or shaped by missed socialization or negative events, fear remains a sticky affair.

Once learned, it takes time and thoughtful training to unlearn. The good news? With the right approach, that same learning process can be used to teach them that the world isn’t so scary after all.

My Dog Is Over Threshold: What to Do?

February 22, 2025February 20, 2025 by Adrienne Farricelli CPDT-KA

If your dog is over threshold, he’s likely experiencing a high level of arousal, fear, stress, or excitement that surpasses his ability to think, learn, or respond appropriately.

When a dog is over threshold, they may exhibit extreme reactions such as barking, lunging, growling, or shutting down entirely.

This often happens when some stimulus that the dog perceives as too intense (e.g., another dog, a stranger, a loud noise) is too close, pushing the dog beyond their comfort zone.

If your dog is over threshold, it’s difficult for him to focus and he will be unable to process information. This prevents him from being able to respond to cues and learn new behaviors.

Let’s take a closer look at what it means when a dog is over threshold, and most of all, what you can do to help lower his threshold levels so that he can form positive associations and learn appropriate responses rather than reacting out of fear or frustration.

What Does It Mean For a Dog to Be Over Threshold?

Being over threshold means that a dog is so stressed, scared, or excited that they just can’t think, listen, or learn. Their emotions take over, and they react instinctively, barking, lunging, running away, or even freezing.

Imagine you’re terrified of spiders, and suddenly, someone dumps a bucket of them on you. Would you calmly listen to instructions? Solve a math problem? Probably not! That’s what happens when your dog goes over threshold.

For training or behavior modification to work, you want to keep your dog under threshold, at that perfect level where they notice something, but can still stay calm, take treats, and respond to you.

If you own a dog, most likely at some time or another, he must have been over threshold. Need some examples?

Examples of a Dog Being Over Threshold

Here are some examples of a dog being over threshold:

Picture this: You’re walking your dog, when suddenly, out of the blue, a squirrel darts across the path. Your dog now transforms into a sled dog in the Iditarod, yanking you off your feet.
Your dog is so fixated on the squirrel that he can’t see you or hear you. He can’t take treats, and certainly forgot all his previous training.

Here’s another example: You are driving and your dog is fine in the car, but the second you step into the vet’s office, he starts panting, whining, and trying to bolt for the exit. His stress level has skyrocketed, and no amount of “good boy” talk or treats will bring them back down.

Maybe you are too familiar with this scene: The doorbell rings, and your dog launches into full-blown defense mode, barking, spinning, and bouncing off the furniture like a kangaroo who had too many coffees.

Here’s the thing: when a dog is over threshold, they’re emotionally flooded, they can’t focus, learn, or respond appropriately. Their fight-or-flight response kicks in, and all cognitive thinking flies out the window.

For training, you want to work under threshold, finding that perfect sweet spot where your dog is aware of a trigger, but he is still able to think, listen, and take treats.

So if you want to avoid being dragged into a bush by a squirrel-chasing lunatic, you’ll need to keep your dog under threshold.

Understanding Comfort Level and Fear Threshold

Here is a general guideline that can help you gauge whether your dog is comfortable, starting to go over threshold and reaching threshold.

Under Threshold

Your dog is aware of the stimulus (e.g., a feared object, dog or person approaching, or a sound), but is still relaxed and does not display signs of fear or distress.

At this level, your dog remains capable of learning and forming positive associations because he is calm.

At Threshold

Your dog starts becoming aware of the stimulus. He’s oriented towards it and may start becoming somewhat concerned. He may start to exhibit early signs of stress such as lip licking, yawning, being hyper vigilant.

Over Threshold

As your dog crosses goes over threshold, he enters a state of emotional reactivity, where fear and stress take over. At this stage, learning is impaired because the dog’s brain prioritizes survival (fight or flight) over forming new, positive associations.

3 Reasons You Need to Keep Your Dog Under Threshold

Following is why it’s so important for you to keep your dog under threshold:

Dogs Learn Best When They Feel Safe

Fear, anxiety and overexcitement inhibit the dog’s ability to process and retain new information. To learn, the dog must remain in a state where they can perceive the feared stimulus without being overwhelmed.

2. It Helps Prevent Sensitization

When a dog is repeatedly exposed to a stimulus in a way that triggers fear, the result may be sensitization rather than desensitization. Sensitization makes the dog more reactive over time, as repeated exposure at a high intensity reinforces their fear response.

Just like having a bucket of spiders dumped on you if you have a phobia won’t likely solve your fear of spiders, so does exposing a fearful dog to something that scares them at full intensity (flooding).

This process won’t help them get over it, in fact, it will probably make things worse. Instead of “getting used to it,” the dog becomes more anxious and reactive each time they encounter the trigger.

3. It Helps Maintain Trust in the Handler

Pushing a dog beyond their comfort zone can damage the trust between the dog and their handler. If the dog feels forced into situations where they are afraid, they may come to associate their handler with stress, which can worsen anxiety and complicate future training efforts.

Signs a Dog Is Going Over Threshold

Being able to read a dog’s body language is crucial for keeping a dog below their fear threshold. Look for these signs:

Subtle Signs (Early Indicators)

Lip licking
Yawning,
Nose licking.
Turning the head away
Avoiding eye contact.
Ears pulled back
Tension in the face or body.
Panting when not hot or thirsty

Evident Signs of Fear or Stress

Whining, barking, or growling.
Pacing or restlessness.
Freezing
Attempting to hide.
Attempting to flee or escape.
Drooling
Trembling.

When these signs appear, it’s an indication that the threshold has been crossed, and the session should be paused or adjusted to reduce the intensity of the stimulus.

What Causes Dogs to Go Over Threshold?

Following are several triggers and situations that may cause dogs to go over threshold. Being aware of these triggers/situations is crucial so as to prevent the dog from relapsing.

Moving Too Quickly Through Steps

Dog owners often rush through the process, exposing the dog to a stimulus too intensely or too soon, such as moving too close to the feared object or introducing it for too long.

Example: If a dog is afraid of cars, taking them on a short drive before they are comfortable just being near a stationary car can set the process back significantly.

Failing to Adjust Based on the Dog’s Response

Dogs are individuals and you cannot use a cookie-cutter approach to address their emotions. A common error is to therefore stick rigidly to a predefined plan without adapting to the individual dog’s needs and responses.

Not Recognizing Subtle Stress Signals

Early signs of fear are often overlooked, leading to situations where the dog is inadvertently pushed beyond their threshold. Hence, the important of recognizing early signs of stress.

Inconsistent Application

If the stimulus is sometimes presented in a non-controlled manner (e.g., an uncontrolled car passing by during training), it can confuse the dog and slow progress.

How to Avoid Your Dog From Going Over Threshold

There are several steps you can take to prevent your dog from being pushed too far. Here are several strategies that help keep your dog under threshold.

Start at a Distance or Intensity Your Dog Tolerates

Begin with a version of the stimulus that is so mild the dog doesn’t react. For example, if the dog fears cars, you might start with the car parked and the engine off at a significant distance.

Progress Gradually and Systematically

Increase exposure intensity (e.g., proximity, duration, or realism of the stimulus) in small, incremental steps. Always monitor the dog’s body language to ensure they remain comfortable.

Use High-Value Reinforcers

Pair the stimulus with something the dog loves, like treats, toys, or praise. This builds a positive emotional association with the stimulus and helps the dog stay below their fear threshold.

Organize Short and Frequent Sessions

Keep training sessions short to prevent stress and fatigue. Frequent, low-pressure sessions are more effective than long, overwhelming ones.

Control the Environment

Ensure the training environment is free from additional stressors that could compound the dog’s anxiety. For instance, train in a quiet area where distractions are minimal.

Signs of Success

You know you’re staying below the fear threshold and progressing effectively when:

Your dog remains calm and relaxed in the presence of the stimulus.
Your dog willingly engages with you (e.g., takes treats, responds to cues).
Your dog begins to exhibit neutral or even positive body language (e.g., wagging tail, relaxed posture) around the stimulus.
Your dog is able to tolerate closer proximity or increased intensity of the stimulus without showing signs of fear.

Is a Dog Under Threshold If He’s Able to Take Treats?

Not necessarily. Some dogs will still eat even when stressed, while others may refuse food at the slightest discomfort.

To determine if a dog is truly under threshold, look at their overall behavior:

If the dog take treats calmly and willingly, they are usually likely under threshold. Do they take treats hurriedly (grabby mouthing) or with stiffness? Then they may be close to threshold.

If they refuse treats, they are likely over threshold and too stressed to eat.

Treat-taking is just one clue. It’s always best assess body language, responsiveness, and the dog’s overall emotional state for the full picture.

Concluding Thoughts

As seen, repeated exposure to a scary stimulus at full intensity can make a dog’s fear worse (sensitization) instead of better (desensitization). To help a fearful dog, introduce the trigger gradually and in a way that keeps them calm (under threshold) so they can learn and potentially form positive associations with the trigger (counterconditioning) rather than negative ones.

Can Dogs Be Ticklish? Let’s Uncover the Sacred Truth

February 27, 2025February 20, 2025 by Adrienne Farricelli CPDT-KA

Can dogs be ticklish? Tickling, consists of that delightful (or diabolical) quirk of the nervous system that makes us giggle, squirm, and sometimes accidentally punch our well-meaning ticklers.

But have you ever wondered if dogs, our ever-loyal and often goofy companions, experience this strange phenomenon too? Can dogs be ticklish in the same way humans are?

This is certainly something important to discover because we really must know whether our dogs like or dislike being touched in certain ways or in certain places.

The Role of Dog Fur in Sensory Perception

Dogs don’t just have sensitive skin, they have hair that is also equipped to detect movement. A dog’s fur is wired to detect changes in the air or small movements in their immediate environment.

When something brushes against their fur—say, a bug crawling along their back—this causes the hair to move slightly. The movement of the hair stimulates nerve endings in the skin, sending signals to the dog’s brain that something is there.

This is why dogs may often seem overly sensitive to certain touches, or why they quickly flick their skin or shake when something brushes against them.

Can Dogs Be Ticklish?

So can dogs be ticklish? Let’s start by saying this: dogs are capable of experiencing sensations similar to ticklishness, but their responses are different from humans.

While they may not giggle like we do when they’re tickled, they certainly have some highly sensitive spots that can trigger reflexive reactions, like twitching legs, kicking, or squirming.

This is likely more akin to an involuntary, reflexive reaction rather than the playful “laughing” response we associate with tickling.

Just like humans, dogs have areas of their body that are especially sensitive to touch. Dogs with a healthy nervous system are blessed with sensitive skin due to the high density of nerve endings in certain parts of their bodies.

These nerve endings are known as mechanoreceptors, and they are specialized in detecting pressure, vibration, and light touch. The higher the concentration of these receptors in an area, the more sensitive that area is to touch.

However, this is more of a response to light pressure or touch, akin to a crawling sensation that triggers a physical reaction. It’s not exactly the same as what we would consider ticklishness, which often combines an emotional response (laughter) with the physical sensation of being touched in a very specific way.

Still, dogs do exhibit behaviors that look a lot like being ticklish, even if their experience doesn’t quite mirror our own.

Dog crazy look on face — Can dogs be ticklish? Yes, dogs can be particularly “sensitive” to being touched in certain areas of their bodies.

Some “Ticklish” Parts of a Dog’s Body

Let’s therefore take a closer look at some areas where dogs are particularly sensitive to touch. When touched in these areas, some dogs may reflexively respond in a way that may be perceived as if they’re being tickled.

Paw Pads

Can dogs be ticklish on their paws? In humans, feet are the ultimate ticklish hotspot. Indeed, just thinking about the soles of your feet being lightly touched can make you squirm. But what’s going on there, neurologically speaking? And how does that relate to dogs, especially when it comes to their paws?

For humans, this ticklishness is partly due to the high concentration of nerve endings in the skin of our feet, particularly in areas like the soles, toes, and arches. The Pacinian corpuscles, a type of mechanoreceptor, are key players here.

These receptors are highly concentrated and make us highly responsive to even the lightest touch, which is why we often react with a giggle or involuntary movement when someone passes a feather on our soles of the feet.

In dogs, their paw pads are also highly sensitive. Much like humans, dogs have Pacinian corpuscles in their paw pads, which makes their paws extremely responsive to pressure, vibration, and even temperature changes.

This sensitivity helps dogs navigate their environment and detect things like vibrations in the ground or subtle changes in the terrain, all important for survival.

However, there’s a big difference between sensitivity and ticklishness. When you touch or manipulate a dog’s paws, you’ll often elicit a negative response, like pulling away, growling, or even snapping.

That’s because their paw pads play a crucial role in survival. In the wild, a dog’s paws are essential for tracking prey, escaping danger, and navigating various environments.

For a dog, the sensitivity of their paws is more than just a response to touch—it’s an essential part of their survival toolkit. Hot pavement or sharp objects can be felt through the paw pads, warning the dog to avoid potentially harmful situations.

Discomfort in having their paws touched can therefore be a sign that they feel vulnerable or threatened, as they associate paw manipulation with a loss of control over this important sensory tool.

Belly

Oh, look, they’re showing me their belly! They must want a belly rub!” But just like with any good mystery, there’s a lot more going on here than meets the eye (or the hand).

First off, let’s address the sensitivity of a dog’s belly. Dog bellies are notably sensitive to touch—and for good reason. The skin on a dog’s belly is much thinner and more delicate than the rest of their body.

In fact, this region is loaded with sensory nerve endings, making it a part of their body where they’re most likely to feel your touch in an intense way.

A dog’s belly area is also a place where dogs store vital organs, such as the stomach, intestines, and reproductive organs. It’s a vulnerable area, which is why dogs are naturally protective of it.

Even if they roll over and expose their belly, this doesn’t always mean they’re entirely comfortable or asking for a belly rub. It’s important to realize that exposing the belly can be a sign of appeasement rather than a true invitation for physical affection.

Why do dog bellies lack hair or have very little hair there, you may ask? Here’s the scoop, a dog’s belly is an area that’s less exposed to the environment compared to the back, so it doesn’t require the same level of protection from the elements (like sun or cold).

That being said, as with the paws, the lack of fur in this area allows for better tactile sensitivity, which helps dogs feel the environment around them more acutely. In the wild, this can be useful for sensing potential threats or changes in their environment, whether it’s a predator sneaking up or an uncomfortable object brushing against them.

Furthermore, the absence of hair allows a dog to better regulate temperature in a way that’s less dependent on fur. In hotter climates, having a less furry belly can help with heat dissipation, as dogs enjoy laying down on cool surfaces to cool off.

So are dogs ticklish on their bellies? While dogs have sensitive areas, especially their bellies, paws, and sides, the same kind of reflexive, giggle-inducing ticklishness that humans experience doesn’t really happen in dogs. Their response to light touch in sensitive areas is more about sensitivity than tickling.

Dogs will therefore wiggle, squirm, or pull away, especially if they find the touch uncomfortable or overly stimulating.

Of course, dogs are individuals, just like people. Their preferences when it comes to belly rubs can vary based on personality and past experiences. Some dogs may love the sensation of a belly rub, while others may feel uncomfortable or even annoyed by it.

A dog exposing the belly — Not all dogs who expose their bellies are asking for a belly rub.

Ears

Can dogs be ticklish on their ears? While ears might not be “ticklish” in the same way that human feet or bellies are, they definitely react to touch. Dogs are very sensitive to ear contact due to the high concentration of nerve endings in their ears.

When you touch a dog’s ears, they might flick, shake, or move their head in response. This is more of an instinctive reaction to the sensation or even a way to shake off irritation or discomfort.

A dog’s ear flap (or pinna) therefore has a lot of nerve endings, so any contact, particularly around the base of the ear or on the ear tip, can feel very intense to them.

This heightened sensitivity has an evolutionary reason: it helps dogs detect and respond to bugs or other small environmental threats that may come into contact with their ears.

When I touched my Rottweiler’s ears very lightly with a blade of grass, his response would be to immediately twitch or shake his head. This must have felt very annoying, sort of like a bug crawling on him. Who wants a pesky bug crawling into the ears?!

Although dog ears don’t “tickle” in the human sense, dogs may be extra sensitive to ear contact. For example, some dogs may respond by shaking their head, pulling away, or flicking their ears when touched, which could be mistaken for ticklishness, but it’s more about discomfort.

Interestingly, when dogs are in a fearful state, they’ll instinctively pull back their ears as they are vulnerable parts of the body. By pulling their ears back they are made less of a target.

Many dogs dislike having their ears touched. The ears are quite sensitive, and many dogs see them as a vulnerable area of their body—much like their belly.

If a dog has had negative experiences with ear handling (such as painful grooming, past injury, or even rough handling), they may develop a strong avoidance behavior toward having their ears touched.

Whiskers

Dogs’ whiskers are like little sensory antennae. They are deeply embedded in the skin and are connected to a dense network of nerve endings. When something touches or brushes against their whiskers, it sends an immediate signal to their brain. The purpose is to alert them to the presence of a potential object or, yes, even a crawling insect.

These whiskers help dogs detect tiny movements in the air or on their skin, which is crucial for navigating their environment.

In essence, whiskers are like antennae, giving dogs information about the space around them, especially when they’re in low light or navigating tight spaces.

When whiskers are touched unexpectedly, a dog may feel disoriented or startled. This can lead to reactions like pulling away, shying back, or even growling. This may be why dogs dislike having people blow into their face!

The sensation dogs feel when their whiskers are touched is more about detection than the playful response we associate with ticklishness. They’re more concerned about processing information and sensing their environment rather than reacting in a playful or ticklish manner. So, while whiskers are sensitive, they’re not “ticklish” in the same way our feet or bellies are.

The Area By the Dog’s Tail

Everybody who owns a dog knows about those rump scritches—the magical spot that can send some dogs into a wiggly, happy dance! If you’ve ever scratched a dog near the base of their tail and watched them wiggle, kick, or do the “butt dance,” you’ve likely wondered: Is this a ticklish reaction, or do they just love it?

Can dogs be ticklish in this area? Again, dogs don’t experience ticklishness in the human sense, but they do have highly sensitive nerve endings in certain areas, including near the base of the tail.

When you scratch that area, it can trigger involuntary reactions like wiggling, kicking a hind leg, or even leaning into your touch.

This response may be triggered by giving a dog relief from an itchy, hard-to-reach spot. Dogs can’t easily reach their lower back and tail base to scratch it, so when a human provides relief, it feels amazing to the dog.

Unlike their shoulders or neck, where they can use their back legs to scratch, this area relies on external help for a good itch relief. Now you know why your dog loves so much to roll over his back and vigorously rub against the ground.

This area sheds less frequently than other parts of the body, meaning dead hairs and skin can build up. Since dogs can’t easily reach their rump, the sensation of a scratch can feel extra relieving.

If a bug crawls near the dog’s tail base, a dog might suddenly whip around, bite at the area, or scoot their butt on the ground to get rid of the sensation. Some dogs might react with a quick tail tuck or even bolt forward if they suddenly feel something crawling back there.

This is more of an instinctual flight response rather than outright fear.

Is a Dog’s Scratch Reflex a Sign of Feeling Ticklish?

Dogs have a scratch reflex that triggers leg kicking and is primarily triggered when scratching the sensitive nerve regions on a dog’s torso, belly, ribs, and flanks,

The scratch reflex was first scientifically studied by Sir Charles Sherrington, a British neuroscientist. He is famous for his research on reflexes, the nervous system, and spinal cord function.

The scratch reflex is an evolutionary defense mechanism that helps dogs react to: bugs, parasites, foreign objects, allergies and skin irritants.

Veterinarians sometimes use the scratch reflex to assess a dog’s neurological function, since a lack of response can indicate spinal or nerve damage.

Can dogs be ticklish in this area? Isn’t a dog’s scratch reflex a sign of a dog feeling ticklish? No, a dog’s scratch reflex is more of a built-in nerve response than a sign of ticklishness. So, that adorable leg-kicking action is just their nervous system doing its job—not them laughing at a good belly rub!

Is My Dog Really Enjoying Touch? Watch the Body Language Closely

Imagine if dogs growl or snap at us because our touch triggers overwhelming tickling sensations and our dogs wish us to stop!

“Non-consensual -or aggressive- tickling can be uncomfortable, and even painful for the recipient,” explains Albert Kok, with the University of Amsterdam in an unpublished paper on tickling.

Here’s the catch: dogs, deprived of the power of words, are utterly helpless in expressing whether being tickled is bliss or pure agony. It’s not like dogs have the luxury of saying, “Excuse me, my dear human, but this tickling sensation? It’s not the most comfortable thing for me, thanks!”

Nope, instead you’re stuck with a silent, furry language of body posture, tail wags, and the occasional yelp if things go too far. They’re like the “silent sufferers” of the animal kingdom, with no Yelp review option to warn others of “excessive belly rubbing” or “paws too far tickled.”

Without the ability to articulate, it’s therefore our job as empathetic owners to carefully watch our dog’s body language and see where our dogs stand in terms of tickling.

As you are petting/tickling your dog, look for a happy tail, loose body language, a relaxed face and mouth area. This body language may mean “Go ahead, tickle away!”

A tucked tail, stiffened posture, or a sudden snarl? That’s the furry version of a raised eyebrow saying, “You might want to back off, buddy.”

The Importance of Consent

Consent is ultimately the cornerstone of healthy, respectful interactions, whether we’re talking about human relationships, human-dog relationships, or, dare I say, even the slightly more awkward world of tickling!

As a dog trainer and behavior consultant, I can tell you that in the world of dogs, consent is paramount. But here’s the kicker: dogs don’t exactly wave a little flag that says, “Yes, tickle me!” or “No, not today!”

Again, it is up to us, the humans, to decipher their body language and ensure that we’re always respecting their boundaries.

This becomes especially tricky when a dog’s signals aren’t as clear as we might hope. Or when we, as well-meaning pet parents, we misinterpret those signals. This is where a consent test comes always handy. Consider that a dog’s sensitivity may sometimes vary from day to day, situation to situation.

A dog staring the owner in the eyes — “Ask” your dog routinely if he consents to petting. Looking up at you, when you stop petting may be a sign of him asking for more.

How to Carry Out a Consent Test

This is not a rigid process but a simple, mindful way to check in with your dog and ensure they’re comfortable with the interaction. It works similarly to the way we test whether our dog is up for a petting session. It’s all about reading the dog’s body language and respecting their response.

Here’s an easy peasy way to carry it out:

Begin by gently touching your dog and carefully watch for your dog’s reaction when you stop. Is your dog leaning more into you, looking at you with pleading eyes and nudging your hands? Is he pawing at you? If so, your dog may be saying “More please!”

Is he pulling back? Turning the head? Avoiding eye contact? Acting neutral or even moving away? That’s a sign that maybe they’re not into it, and you should slow down or stop. It’s very important to respect the “stop” signals.

In short, the importance of consent in your interactions with your dog is about ensuring that both you and your dog feel safe, respected, and comfortable.

Consent tests ultimately help build trust. When dogs see consistently that their signals are respected, they’re more likely to engage in positive, relaxed interactions with us.

Conversely, when dogs are repeatedly forced into uncomfortable situations, they may develop anxiety, fear, or even aggressive behaviors as a way of communicating their distress!

Not All Dogs Are the Same!

Of course, not all dogs are made the same as if using a cookie cutter to make a batch of cookies. Some dogs are more tolerant of touch than others. While one dog may happily accept a belly rub, another might be hugely sensitive about their paws being touched.

Some dogs are more sensitive than others and may take a little longer to warm up to touch. Others may be more decisive in telling you when they’re done.

By observing their behavior and following up with the simple “stop and check” method, you can develop a better understanding of what works for your dog, whether you’re engaging in tickles, cuddles, or any other form of affection.

Concluding Thoughts

So can dogs be ticklish? As seen, dogs don’t get tickled in the human sense. In the grand scheme of things, I think what’s critical to consider is the fact that tickling a dog is like playing a game of “guess the emotional state”—but without the safety net of verbal communication.

So, unless you’re very fluent in “canine body language,” be prepared to carefully interpret everything from leg kicks to suspicious side-eye when your hands stray a little too close to tickle territory.

Facts About Floppy Ears in Dogs

February 20, 2025February 18, 2025 by Adrienne Farricelli CPDT-KA

Floppy ears in dogs are quite an invention! They are a defining characteristic of many dog breeds and despite their simple appearance, they hold various important functions. Need some examples? They are critical for communication, hearing ability, and health.

The presence of floppy ears is often associated with selective breeding and domestication, a phenomenon seen in studies like the famous farm fox experiment. If this is new to you, read on to discover more about this intriguing experiment.

So let’s take a closer look into the physiological aspects of floppy ears in dogs and their impact on a dog’s communication and hearing.

Furthermore, we’ll explore their evolutionary origins, and how they compare to dogs with erect ears.

The Physiology of Floppy Ears

In dogs, as it happens in people, it can be said that their ear structure is for the most part composed of cartilage and muscles.

The external ear, or pinna, consists of a flexible cartilage framework that is covered with skin and fur.

What makes a dog’s floppy ears “flop?” In breeds with floppy ears, the cartilage is softer and lacks the rigidity needed to keep the pinna upright.

In contrast, dogs with erect ears have stronger ear muscles, allowing them to move their ears independently for better sound localization.

The shape and structure of a dog’s ears also influence how they funnel sound waves toward the eardrum. What’s known is that floppy-eared dogs may experience a slight reduction in directional hearing compared to their erect-eared counterparts.

However, their overall hearing ability remains always significantly higher than humans and highly functional.

A chocolate Labrador swimming — A Labrador Retriever’s floppy ears help reduce wind noise while retrieving and swimming—but they also make them prone to ear infections.

The Role of Floppy Ears in Communication

Dogs use their ears extensively to communicate with both humans and other animals. In erect-eared breeds, ear positioning plays a significant role in expressing emotions such as alertness, fear, or curiosity.

For example, pricked ears often indicate attentiveness, while ears laid back against the head suggest fear.

Floppy-eared dogs, however, have a more limited range of ear mobility due to reduced ear muscle function. This can make their body language less evident compared to erect-eared dogs.

However, this doesn’t mean it’s impossible to “read them.” With my Rottweilers, I could tell when were alert. Their floppy ears were oriented towards something as their top would slightly raise and their forehead would wrinkle.

Dogs with floppy ears must therefore rely on other forms of communication, such as facial expressions, tail movement, and vocalizations.

Some floppy-eared dogs can still move their ears slightly, but their communication through ear positioning is less precise and somewhat less easy to interpret compared to dogs with erect ears.

Despite this limitation, humans and other dogs still interpret their signals effectively.

Do Floppy-Eared Dogs Hear Well?

While floppy ears may reduce directional hearing slightly, they do not significantly impair a dog’s overall ability to hear.

Dogs have an impressive auditory range, detecting sounds between 40 Hz and 60,000 Hz—far beyond human capabilities. Their inner ear structures remain unchanged regardless of ear shape, ensuring that they can hear even high-frequency sounds effectively.

However, because floppy ears cover the ear canal and may not localize sound as precisely as erect-eared dogs. Because their pinnae are less mobile, they may therefore not pinpoint sound sources as accurately as their erect-eared counterparts.

Nonetheless, they are still capable of detecting distant sounds, making them excellent companions for hunting, guarding, and companionship.

Are Floppy-Eared Dogs More Prone to Ear Infections?

Floppy ears are often believed to have an increased susceptibility to ear infections. This is because the floppy pinna covers the entrance to the ear canal, creating a warm, moist environment that is ideal for bacterial and yeast growth.

Erect-eared dogs instead are believe to have better ear ventilation, allowing air to circulate freely and reducing the likelihood of bacterial and fungal overgrowth.

However, while floppy ears do contribute to ear infections, ear structure alone isn’t the only factor at play.

For example, German Shepherds have erect ears, which should theoretically allow for better ventilation and lower infection risk, however, they are still quite prone to ear infections.

If we had to pick though a breed notorious for ear infections, Cocker Spaniels are the poster child for ear infections!

While erect-eared dogs generally have fewer ear infections due to better air circulation in the ear canal, one disadvantage is “openness.” In a nutshell, they’re more vulnerable to environmental hazards like frostbite, injuries and insect bites.

The Role of Domestication

Many wild canids, such as wolves, foxes, and coyotes have erect ears, why is that? Most likely because the presence of floppy ears in many domestic dog breeds can be attributed to domestication.

One of the most famous studies supporting this idea is the Russian farm fox experiment, conducted by Dmitry Belyaev.

In this experiment, wild foxes were selectively bred for tameness and friendliness toward humans. Over generations, these foxes began to exhibit physical traits associated with domestication, including floppy ears, shorter snouts, and piebald coats.

This phenomenon suggests that floppy ears may be a byproduct of domestication, rather than a trait specifically selected for.

The reason behind this lies in the neural crest hypothesis, which proposes that reduced levels of neural crest cells during embryonic development lead to physical changes such as floppy ears, curly tails, and reduced aggression.

The hypothesis entails that a reduction in neural crest cell proliferation and migration is a core genetic mechanism of early domestication.

Since the neural crest contributes to the development of both the nervous system and cartilage, selecting for docility inadvertently affects ear structure.

Did you know? In a study, dogs with floppy ears were rated higher on Agreeableness and Emotional Stability than pointy-eared dogs.

Comparison with Erect-Eared Dogs

Erect-eared dogs, such as German Shepherds, Huskies, and Belgian Malinois, tend to have superior directional hearing due to their ability to move their ears independently.

This gives them an advantage in activities that require acute sound detection, such as herding, hunting, and search-and-rescue work.

In contrast, floppy-eared breeds were often bred for purposes where acute hearing was less critical, such as scent tracking or companionship. Hounds, such as Beagles, Basset Hounds and Bloodhounds for example, rely more on their powerful sense of smell than their hearing when tracking scents.

Did you know? Many puppies known for boasting erect-ears (like German Shepherds or Siberian Huskies), have floppy ears as puppies because their ear cartilage is still developing. As they grow and their cartilage strengthens, their ears will start standing up.

German shepherd puppy with floppy ears — German Shepherd puppies have floppy ears when young.

Different Types of Floppy Ears in Dogs

Not all floppy ears are created equally! They come in different styles, following are several types of floppy ears in dogs.

Button Ears

These ears bend over at the tip. The name “button ears “derived from the appearance of this ear which somewhat resembles the buttoned fold seen on pockets on a shirt.

This ear type is seen in several dog breeds. In the pug’s breed standard, the American Kennel Club, describes the ears in this breed as being small and soft, like black velvet. Two kinds of ears are accepted – the “rose” and the “button” but preference is given to the latter.

Rose Ears

These ears look a bit erect, but then the fold drops down causing the end part of the pinna of the ear to fall to the side. Its name derives from this ear’s shape due to the folds resembling somewhat the petals of a rose.

You’ll see rose ears in a variety of dog breeds, more notoriously in several sighthounds.

Drop Ears

As the name implies, these ears are floppy. Labrador retrievers, golden retrievers, and Chesapeake Bay retrievers are just some dog breeds that are known for sporting drop ears.

Interestingly, these dog breeds share a predisposition for swimming. Therefore there may be chances those drop ears were selectively bred for to prevent water from entering the ears, explains Christine Zink in the book “Peak Performance EBook: Coaching the Canine Athlete.”

There are several other dog breeds known for featuring drop ears.

Filbert Ears

This floppy ears shape is specific to only Bedlington Terriers. This ear is triangular in shape with rounded tips and is velvety in texture. Its most characteristic trait is the small silky tassel found at the tip. The name of this ear derives from the word “filbert” which depicts a nut of the hazel family.

Folded Ears

This an extreme form of the drop ear characterized by very long ears that hang down a lot and have distinct folds. Also known as pendulous ears, these ears touch the ground as often seen in the blood hound and basset hound. This type of ear is characteristic of dogs selectively bred for tracking.

The Power of Pendulous Ears

In dog breeds with long ears such as Basset hounds and Bloodhounds, the ears carry several intriguing additional functions.

Because these dog’s ears are so low to the ground, especially when their heads are lowered during scent tracking, they stir up scent particles from the ground, helping direct them toward the nose.

This, along with the loose, wrinkled skin, helps create “a scent pool” around the nose, allowing for more thorough olfactory processing and a higher likelihood of accurately following a scent trail.

Furthermore, the long ears also act as a barrier, helping block noise and wind disturbances that may distract and disrupt the scent trail.

Basset hound with pendulous ears — Pendulous ears create a “scent pool” when they scent hounds are tracking with their head carried low.

Concluding Thoughts

As seen, floppy ears are fascinating! They are a great representation of how evolution, domestication, and selective breeding have shaped the canines we live with today.

While they may appear to be just a charming trait, their structure serves various functional purposes, from enhancing scent-tracking abilities to keeping ears somewhat protected from water.

Whether aiding in tracking, protecting against environmental factors, or simply making dogs appear more approachable, floppy ears are more than just a feature, they’re a testament to the complex and remarkable nature of canine evolution.

References

Fratkin, Jamie & Baker, Suzanne. (2013). The Role of Coat Color and Ear Shape on the Perception of Personality in Dogs. Anthrozoos: A Multidisciplinary Journal of The Interactions of People & Animals

Waller BM, Peirce K, Caeiro CC, Scheider L, Burrows AM, McCune S, Kaminski J. Paedomorphic facial expressions give dogs a selective advantage. PLoS ONE. 2013

Dugatkin, Lee. (2018). The silver fox domestication experiment. Evolution: Education and Outreach

Trut LN. Early canid domestication: the farm-fox experiment. Am Sci. 1999

Wilkins, Adam & Wrangham, Richard & Fitch, W. (2021). The neural crest/domestication syndrome hypothesis, explained: reply to Johnsson, Henriksen, and Wright. Genetics

Surprise, Your Dog Has New Year Resolutions Too!

March 2, 2025December 31, 2016 by Adrienne Farricelli CPDT-KA

With the year coming to an end, you might have special plans in mind for next year, but what about your dog? Chances are high your dog has New Year’s resolutions too! Of course, Rover won’t compile a New Year’s resolution to-do-list like many people do, and obviously he can’t express them in words, but as dog owners, we must be our dog’s ambassadors as they depend quite a lot on us for their health and mental well being.

So for New Year’s why not help Rover keep his resolutions for a healthy and happier year ahead? Chances are, some of these resolutions may benefit you too! So here are Five News Year’s Resolutions your dog wants you to know about.

“I Shall Shed Some Pounds”…

According to the The Association for Pet Obesity Prevention (APOP) an estimated 58 percent of dogs in the Unites States are overweight or obese. And just as in people, those extra pounds makes dogs susceptible to several medical conditions such as orthopedic problems, diabetes, heart disease, respiratory problems, cancer and an over all decreased life expectancy.

Helping your dog lose weight is much easier than thought considering that you are the one in control of portions and distribution of treats. Consider feeding your dog at specific times versus providing food ad libitum, that is, leaving food at your dog’s disposal all day.

Start using measuring cups so you have better control on the amount of food consumed and use a portion of your dog’s food for treats or training, suggests board-certified veterinarian Christopher G. Byers.

Consult with your vet for appropriate dietary changes to help your dog shed extra pounds and maintain a healthy weight.

“And I Shall Get More Exercise”

On top of shedding extra pounds, engaging more in exercise is another New Year’s Resolution that tops Rover’s list.

You can help him reach this goal by cutting a bit of your spare time and taking your dog on walks. This way, your dog gets to lead a happier and healthier life, but the best part is, so do you!

This resolution may therefore match your own if your were planning to embrace New Year’s with the idea of shedding a few pounds or leading a healthier lifestyle.

Whether you are planning on jogging, going on hikes on trails or long leisurely walks, you dog will certainly be happy to accompany you.

Just make sure that you’re dog is properly conditioned for the type of exercise you are planning to include him and that he’s old enough; too much exercise or of the wrong type in puppies may have a negative impact on their growth plates.

“I Shall Be Kept More Mentally Stimulated…”

Sure, losing weight and getting more exercise are great resolutions, but let’s not forget that Rover has a mind too, and that mind needs to be kept busy.

Dog owners often forget about this, but dogs like to keep their minds occupied just as much as they like to play and romp around.

Of course, when we talk about mental stimulation, we’re not talking about getting our dogs to do crossword puzzles, compose a piece of music or a solve a game of Sodoku.

Instead, we’re talking about interactive games such as hiding his kibble in hard-to-find places, stuffing a Kong or putting his whole meal in maze bowls.

If you are short of ideas, there are several books that offer a variety of games and puzzles that you can set up for your dog using just a few items you have already laying around the house. Brain Training for Dogs is an e-book with many games and tips to get you started.

“And I Shall Learn New Skills.”

Just like you are planning to achieve new goals and better yourself, your dog is eager to “continue his education,” whether it involves learning a new trick, being engaged in a new fun doggy sport or learning to walk politely on leash.

Whatever you are planning to teach your dog this coming year, make sure to always keep it fun and rewarding. Learning something new should be something your dog enjoys and looks forward to, so make sure to embrace the joy of positive reinforcement training without the use of aversives.

Why not try clicker training if this is something you still haven’t discovered? You will learn a lot too as the use of clicker will teach you how to master good timing and some mechanical skills (ever tried to click your clicker the exact moment a ball touches the floor?)

And Don’t Forget to Keep Discovering More About Me!

Last but not least, Rover’s last resolution regards you, his beloved owner. Rover whispered in our ears that he hopes you will continue to discover more cool things about him so that you’ll be able to understand him better.

We hope that this whole year with us has been an entertaining journey for you as it was for us. Discovering every day something new about our canine friends was quite an enthralling experience!

We are happy to have made it so far, bringing you 365 days filled with learning something new about Rover’s behavior, body language, anatomy, health and uncovering the meaning of some new dog words.

For us, it has been quite a journey and we hope you enjoyed it as much as we have! Here are wishes for a wonderful year ahead and may all your resolutions come true!

9 Fascinating Facts About Dog Saliva

March 2, 2025December 30, 2016 by Adrienne Farricelli CPDT-KA

You likely don’t pay much attention to your dog’s saliva until you watch some droplets fall down, and then, before you know it, a little puddle of saliva has formed as your dog watches you eat a juicy steak. Dog saliva after all is meant to stay inside, nicely tucked inside your dog’s mouth, but in some breeds with heavy jowls, that can be easier said that done.

Owners of such dogs seem to always be prepared for the saliva downpour and keep a towel handy so to catch those droplets and slingers. Dog saliva after all, may seem like something boring, but instead there are several fascinating facts about dog saliva that are worthy of discovering.

Pavlov Studied Dog Saliva….

Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who, after reading Charles Darwin, abandoned his religious career to totally dedicate himself to natural science. He therefore started studying the mechanisms underlying the digestive system in mammals.

As he researched the interaction between salivation and the action of the stomach, Pavlov decided to involve dogs in his studies. To better understand the mechanism, a clear tube was connected to the dog’s salivary gland in the cheek which allowed him to keep track of the amount of saliva collecting. Saliva production was therefore copious when the scientists placed food in the dog’s mouth.

Pavlov’s studies revealed that the biological production of saliva had an important function in the digestive process and that, without salivation, the stomach failed to get the necessary input to start the digestive process. This was proof that digestive functions were linked by biological reflexes in the autonomic nervous system.

When He Stumbled on an Interesting Phenomenon.

At some point, in the midst of observing dogs salivating when food was offered to them, Pavlov saw an interesting phenomenon unveil. He noticed that even when there was no food in sight, the dogs were still salivating. This happening at first was perceived as an annoyance considering that the tubes kept collecting saliva even when the scientists weren’t conducting research.

However, Pavlov carefully evaluated the situation and came to a possible conclusion that the dogs were likely drooling at the mere sight of the scientists’ white lab coats in anticipation for the food.

To prove this theory, he starting ringing a metronome to signal the approach of food. After several trials, he noticed that the dogs not only began to salivate upon hearing the noise of the metronome, but at some point even when no food was present!

This led to the discovery that salivation, a biological reflex, was capable of being modified by something psychological, in this case, a sense of anticipation. Pavlov named this type of reflex a “conditioned reflex,” basically a reflex that resulted from associative learning so to differentiate it from the biological reflex, while the whole process of associative learning was called Pavlovian conditioning in his honor, today also known as respondent conditioning or classical conditioning.

This discovery opened the doors to understanding the science of behavior and American psychologist John Watson further expanded this research and, with his Little Albert studies, used its principles to change a human’s behavior.

Dog Saliva Can Help Clean Wounds….

When you get a wound you likely rush to wash it with soap and water, but what does a dog have to do? Prior to domestication, that means prior to when dogs had owners rushing to clean and disinfect a dog’s wounds, dogs relied on themselves to clean up a wound.

The mechanical action of a dog’s tongue along with saliva, helped remove any dirt or debris present on the wound’s surface. So yes, a dog’s saliva along with some tongue action can help remove stuff from the wound that shouldn’t be there, which is good.

The next question though is: does dog saliva have any antibacterial properties?

You may have stumbled at some point or another on somebody claiming that it’s good to let dogs lick their wounds because dog saliva has healing properties. This statement makes sense overall considering how quickly wounds in the mouth tend to heal, but is there any truth to it?

To attain the answer to this we had to go dig up some studies. According to a study conducted by Benjamin L. Hart, and Karen L. Powell, saliva in male and female dogs was found to have antibacterial properties, in particular against Escherichia coli and Streptococcus canis, which comes handy when mother dogs are licking their newborn pups which are predisposed to highly fatal coliform enteritis and septicemia. This suggests that wound licking in dogs may therefore help reduce contamination with E. coli and S. canis

But Only Up to a Certain Point.

As with everything in life, moderation is key. Sure, dog saliva may have antibacterial properties, but it also contains bad bacteria as well. Also, given the opportunity, dogs will tend to lick a whole lot which can cause loads of trouble as the repeated abrasive action of the tongue, along with keeping a wound moist for too long (moisture attracts bacteria), may lead to an infection or injury. This is why veterinarians often recommend that dogs wear the infamous “cone of shame” AKA the infamous Elizabethan Collar.

“When a pet licks a surgical incision, he is introducing contamination, not removing it. In the case of non-surgical wounds, I don’t care if a pet licks a few times before treatment is initiated, but once the area has been thoroughly cleaned and medications started, the downsides of licking once again outweigh its benefits.”~Dr. Jennifer Coates

Did you know? When dogs lick their paws in excess, they may cause what is known as lick granuloma, as seen in the picture.

Saliva Aids in Digestion…

If your dog produces saliva, you must thank his salivary glands which are found in your dog’s upper and lower jaw. Want to know more about them? Dogs have two zygomatic glands by the cheek bone near the dog’s eyes, two parotid glands where the head meets the neck, two sublingual glands under the dog’s tongue and two mandibular glands, by the dog’s lower jaw.

As in humans, saliva helps keep Rover’s mouth nice and moist and helps lubricate the passage of chewed-up food from the mouth through the esophagus and then all the way down to the dog’s stomach. The blob of chewed-up food is formally known as “bolus” and the more slippery it is, the easier it will slide down without causing damage.

You might have heard the saying “the digestive process starts in the mouth.” All this means is that chewing stimulates the process of breaking down some components of food so that they’re more easy to assimilate. Well, this applies to dogs too. As dogs chew, saliva helps break down starch into individual sugar molecules, explains veterinarian Race Foster. Not all salivary glands though produce the same type of saliva.

According to Dukes’ Physiology of Domestic Animals, saliva may vary from a watery consistency to thicker, mucoid-like. For instance, the parotid glands, produce a watery saliva rich in amylase, which is what helps dog digest starch, while the sublingual glands, on the other hand, produce a mucus-type of saliva rich in mucin, which helps the bolus travel from the mouth to the stomach.

But Excess Saliva May Be A Sign Your Dog is Nauseous.

Excess salivation should send you on a “barf alert.” Keep those paper towels handy and send Rover on a tiled area for an easy clean-up the moment you notice him drooling and smacking his lips. Why do dogs drool though when they are getting sick? If dogs drool in anticipation of food and saliva helps kick start the digestive process, then why in the world is saliva again getting in the way when a dog is actually about to lose his lunch?

Well, here’s a fascinating fact: saliva in this case assumes a protective role. Since vomit is very acidic in nature, the increase in saliva seen when one becomes nauseous is meant to help minimize erosion to the mouth and tooth enamel caused by those potent gastric acids.

Did you know? Your dog’s salivary glands also increase salivation when there are irritating substances in the mouth.

Saliva Can Help Dogs Cool Down…

Dogs do not cool down primarily through their skin like humans do, but their main way of cooling off is by panting. You might not know this, but your dog’s saliva can play a role in helping Rover cool down when those temperatures soar in the dog days of summer or after exercising.

Here’s a little insight into the process. When your dog is hot, he will keep his mouth open and breath quickly. This heavy panting allows the saliva-moistened surfaces of his mouth and tongue to cool down by increasing evaporation. Since blood flows through the mouth and tongue, once the blood cools down, it reaches the rest of the dog’s body and thus, lowers the dog’s core temperature. This evaporation is ultimately one of the several ways dogs cool down when they’re hot.

But It Can Also Lead to Unsightly Stains

If you own a white colored dog with a passion for licking, you might be aware of the effects of excess licking on your dog’s coat, but what causes those stains in your dog’s fur in the first place? In this case, you must blame your dog’s saliva. According to Muller and Kirk’s Small Animal Dermatology the main cause for dog saliva and dog tears to cause unsightly reddish stains is due to presence of porphyrins. What exactly are porphyrins? Porphyrins are simply molecules that contain iron as the result of the natural breakdown of red blood cells. While most poryphyrins are excreted from the body when a dog eliminates, traces of porphyrin may also be excreted through a dog’s tears, saliva, and urine.

And Finally Some Dogs Just Can’t Keep Saliva In

Saliva is really supposed to be stored nicely in a dog’s mouth, some breeds though are by design naturally born droolers. The shape of a dog’s upper lip (flews) can surely play a role in how predisposed a dog may be to drooling.

Many owners of dogs with particularly developed flews have gotten used to cleaning up what are known as “slingers;” basically, strings of drool that attach to floors, ceilings and walls every time slobbery dogs happen to shake their heads.

It’s very difficult to come by a Saint Bernard with a dry mouth. Many seasoned dog owners though have simply learned to cope with the drooling issue.

“You just always carry a towel and learn to live with it,” explains a fancier to the American Kennel Club Gazette. Coping mechanisms aside, those slingers are not to be underestimated: Barbara Meyer explains in her blog that, left alone, this spittle has the tendency to dry into a rock-like hardness and that she heard a dog owner speculating that it might be of interest to NASA for the purpose of gluing down the tiles of their space shuttles! Quite some amazing stories for just a spit of saliva, aren’t they?

Did you know? A 20 kilogram dog (around 44 pounds) is capable of producing anywhere between a half a liter up to 1 liter of saliva a day! The amount is usually higher in dogs who are fed dry foods.

References:

Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), People and Discoveries, Ivan Pavlov, retrieved from the web on December 30th, 2016
Antibacterial properties of saliva: Role in maternal periparturient grooming and in licking wounds Benjamin L. Hart, Karen L. Powell, Physiology & Behavior Volume 48, Issue 3, September 1990, Pages 383–386
Lussi A, Jaeggi T. Erosion – diagnosis and risk factors. Clin Oral Investig. 2008;12:S5–13.

Photo Credits:

Wikipedia, Ivan Pavlov, Public Domain
Wikipedia, A statue of Ivan Pavlov and one of his dogs Илья Го. (грохотайло) – Я автор этой фотографии CCBY3.0
Flickr Creative Commons, osseousOctober 7, 2013, Luna licking CCBY2.0
Wikipedia, Canine lick granuloma / acral lick dermatitis; self-inflicted as an obsessive-compulsive self-destructive behavior,self – Own work CC BY-SA 3.0
Flickr, Creative Commons, Paul Joseph, drool dog CCBY2.0

How to Prevent Dog Collar Strangulation

February 22, 2025December 29, 2016 by Adrienne Farricelli CPDT-KA

Collars are an everyday necessity for most dogs. They hold important identification tags, proof of vaccinations, and serve as a point of attachment for leashes. However, despite their commonplace use, collars can pose significant safety risks, particularly when it comes to strangulation.

While many pet owners trust traditional collars without a second thought, an increasing number of incidents have shown that dog collar strangulation is a real and present danger. This article will explore the risks associated with dog collars, provide insights into why these accidents happen, and discuss safer alternatives to help prevent such tragic incidents.

Risks Associated with Dog Collars

At first glance, a standard buckle collar appears harmless. It wraps securely around the dog’s neck and ensures that identification tags are readily available. However, what many dog owners may not realize is that this very design can lead to fatal accidents in certain situations.

Collar-Related Accidents During Play

One of the most common ways dogs experience collar strangulation is during play. Dogs naturally engage in roughhousing, which often includes mouthing, chasing, and wrestling. If one dog’s jaw or tooth gets entangled in another dog’s collar, panic sets in.

The trapped dog struggles to free itself, while the other dog instinctively tries to pull away. In a matter of seconds, the force exerted can tighten the collar around the dog’s neck, leading to strangulation. Many cases of dog collar strangulation occur in households with multiple dogs or at dog parks and daycare centers where group play is common.

Collar Snagging on Objects

Another common risk is a dog’s collar getting caught on objects. This can happen both indoors and outdoors. Examples include:

Crate wires: A collar can become entangled in the metal wiring of a crate, particularly if a dog is attempting to exit hastily.
Fences: If a dog jumps or squeezes through a fence, the collar can snag on a protruding piece of wire or wood, leading to asphyxiation.
Branches and decks: Outdoor dogs, especially those left unsupervised, may get their collars caught on tree branches, patio railings, or deck boards.

In each of these scenarios, if the dog is unable to free itself, the consequences can be fatal. Tragically, these accidents are not as rare as one might assume.

Alarming Statistics

According to estimates, approximately 26,000 dogs suffer from injury or death annually due to collar strangulation accidents. These numbers underscore the importance of taking preventive measures to protect our canine companions from an easily avoidable hazard.

Preventative Measures to Reduce Risks

Back in the days when working for an animal hospital, collars were the first thing we removed from a dog upon admission into the hospital. This meant all dogs coming in for medical procedures that required an in-hospital stay even for just a few hours, had their collars removed immediately.

What did we replace the collars with? We used these flimsy looking identification collars made of the same material as medical hospital identification bracelets with the pet’s name and owner’s name written with a black marker.

Many veterinary hospitals, dog boarding facilities, and professional daycare centers have recognized the dangers of traditional collars and adjusted their policies accordingly.

Similarly, an increasing number of dog daycare centers have adopted a no-collar policy during group play. This simple precaution significantly reduces the risk of strangulation injuries.

“You can think of it as you would any safety measure such as backing up your computer or wearing a life vest, seat belt or bike helmet…Taking collars off dogs is a safety measure to prevent the worst-case – when the dog’s collar might get entangled on another dog or an object, and the dog chokes to death. At that point it’s too late to say, “if only . . .”~Gail Fisher

Safer Alternatives to Standard Buckle Collars

Recognizing the dangers associated with traditional collars, pet owners can take steps to minimize risks by considering safer collar options:

Quick-Release Collars
- These collars feature a buckle mechanism designed to release when force is applied. If a dog’s jaw or tooth gets caught in another dog’s collar, the quick-release buckle allows the collar to detach, preventing strangulation.
- While safer during play, these collars are not ideal for everyday leash use, as they may inadvertently unclip under tension.
Breakaway Safety Collars
- Breakaway collars look like traditional buckle collars but are designed to snap open under extreme force. This allows dogs to escape if their collar gets caught on something.
- Some breakaway collars feature two D-rings, so owners can attach a leash to both rings for secure handling, preventing the collar from breaking away during walks while still offering safety when unsupervised.
Stretchable Elastic Collars
- Some safety collars, such as the Tazlab Safe-T-Stretch Collar, incorporate an elastic component that allows the dog to slip out if the collar gets stuck.
- These are ideal for unsupervised wear but may not be effective for leash-walking.
Harnesses as an Alternative
- In many situations, a well-fitted harness can serve as a safer alternative to a collar, especially for leash walking. Harnesses eliminate the risk of neck strangulation altogether.
- However, they do not provide a place for ID tags, so microchipping is recommended for additional security.

Addressing the Identification Dilemma

One common concern among dog owners is how to ensure their pet remains identifiable without a collar. Fortunately, there are alternative ways to provide identification:

Engraved Collars: Some safety collars allow contact information to be directly embroidered or engraved onto the collar fabric, eliminating the need for dangling ID tags that could become entangled.
ID Tags on Harnesses: If using a harness instead of a collar, owners can attach ID tags to the harness’s D-ring.
Microchipping: A microchip is a permanent and highly effective means of identification. Ensuring that the chip is registered and the contact details are up-to-date is essential.

The Role of Supervision and Education

Even with safety collars, accidents can still happen. Supervision is key. Owners should be especially vigilant during playtime and when dogs are in environments where collar snagging is possible. Educating pet parents, dog daycare providers, and trainers about the risks of dog collar strangulation can help prevent unnecessary injuries and fatalities.

Final Thoughts

Dog collar strangulation is a distressing and preventable occurrence. By understanding the risks, implementing safety measures, and considering alternative collar options, pet owners can take proactive steps to protect their dogs. While no collar is entirely without risk, choosing safer alternatives such as quick-release or breakaway collars—and ensuring supervision during play—can greatly reduce the likelihood of accidents.

As veterinary professionals and behaviorists advocate for safer canine equipment, it is up to pet owners to stay informed and make responsible choices that prioritize their dog’s safety and well-being.

“If you’re nervous about having your dog naked (and without ID), use a collar with a buckle that can be released even under tension. Another option is a safety breakaway collar.” ~Nancy Kerns, Whole Dog Journal

By staying proactive, spreading awareness, and making informed choices, we can work toward reducing preventable tragedies and ensuring that our dogs remain safe, happy, and healthy.

Photo Credits:

Flickr Creative Commons, Logan Ingalls Gus was in the hospital – HE’S HOME NOW! CCBY2.0
Wikipedia, Nylon quick-release buckle collar with identification and medical tags. The original uploader was Elf at English Wikipedia – CCBY3.0

Dog Word of the Day: What is a Dudley Nose?

March 7, 2025December 28, 2016 by Adrienne Farricelli CPDT-KA

When it comes to dog noses, they can be colored in many different ways, the most common being black, but once in a blue moon you may stumble on what is called a Dudley nose. What exactly is a Dudley nose?

The American Kennel Club glossary informs us that a Dudley nose in dogs is simply a flesh-colored nose. This Dudley nose definition though doesn’t tell us much about what causes a Dudley nose in dogs and whether it’s a problem or not. It’s interesting therefore discovering more about why a dog’s nose would appear flesh-colored in the first place.

What is a Dudley Nose?

As mentioned, a Dudley nose is a flesh-colored nose, which differs from the usual solid black pigmentation seen on the noses of most dog breeds.

If you were to look at the usage of this term in many dog breed standards, you would soon notice that it’s often listed as a fault. In some breeds the presence of a Dudley nose is considered a serious fault and in some others it can even be means for disqualification!

For instance, the Labrador retriever breed standard mentions that the presence of a thoroughly pink nose or a nose lacking any pigment is a disqualification.

A Dudley nose in dogs should not be confused with the term “winter nose” or “snow nose.” In the case of snow nose or winter nose, the loss of pigmentation is, as the name implies, seasonal, therefore causing a temporary change that takes place in the winter.

Generally, in snow nose, the middle of the nose looses color, then, once winter is over, the nose returns to its normal original color. Snow nose is thought to occur because of lack of sunlight and is commonly seen in Siberian huskies, Labrador and golden retrievers and some other breeds.

In the case of a Dudley nose instead, the dog is typically born with a solid black nose, but then as the dog matures, the nose starts gradually fading becoming brown until it reaches the point of turning pinkish white. Unlike “snow nose” the change in color is permanent.

Importance of Pigmentation

The next question one may think of is: why is nasal depigmentation in dogs such a big deal? Is it just a matter of looks or is there more to it?

Turns out, for a very good reason a solid black nose is the default color seen in most dogs. Nasal pigmentation is ultimately what protects the dog’s nose from sunburn and potential skin cancer. Generally, the darker the nose, the better UV protection.

“A dog with a black nose would be considered “protected” from the sun. A dog with a pink, fading to pink or pale nose needs sunscreen applied to this area…AVOID sunscreens with zinc oxide. Pet caregivers can also opt for a visor.”~Dr. Jean Dodds

Did you know? Nose color in dogs is often related to coat color. From a genetic standpoint, black dogs have black noses while brown or liver dogs have liver noses.

From a Medical Standpoint

The term Dudley nose is used in breeder circles, but the actual medical term for such reduction in pigmentation is “idiopathic nasal hypopigmentation.”

The word idiopathic denotes a condition that has an unknown cause. Basically, what triggers Dudley nose in dogs remains for the most part a mystery. It just seems to happen spontaneously for no particular reason.

The word nasal, obviously refers to nose, while hypopigmentation simply refers to low or lack of pigmentation.

Fortunately, a Dudley nose as with some other nose color changes in dogs doesn’t seem to affect a dog’s health overall as long as there are no other signs of problems going on such as scaling, crusting or cracking.

“The only time we need to be concerned about a change in color is if the leather starts to appear abnormal in texture (smooth and shiny rather than the normal textured appearance) or the spots become ulcerated or crusty. Those changes can signify autoimmune disease, some types of fungal infections, zinc deficiency dermatosis in some arctic breeds, or cancerous changes like squamous cell carcinoma.” ~Dr. Kara

Did you know? The word Dudley derives from bulldogs with flesh-colored noses that were bred from a part of Black Country in Worchestershire, known as “Dudley” explains Rawdon B. Lee in the book “A History and Description of the Modern Dogs of Great Britain and Ireland.”

References:

Ear, Nose and Throat Diseases of the Dog and Cat, By Richard G. Harvey, Gert ter Haar, CRC Press; 1 edition (October 14, 2016)
A History and Description of the Modern Dogs of Great Britain and Ireland, By Rawdon B. Lee, 1893

Photo Credits:

Flickr, Creative Commons, Shutterbug 70, Close up of Teazer’s nose. CCBY2.0

What’s the Main Difference Between Papillon and Phalene?

March 4, 2025December 27, 2016 by Adrienne Farricelli CPDT-KA

Almost everybody is familiar with the papillon dog breed, a small dog breed known for its flashy looking fringed ears that somewhat resemble butterflies, but not many people are familiar with the phalene variety, a variation of this breed that is gradually undergoing a resurgence in popularity.

Interestingly, the American Kennel Club accepts both varieties which are categorized as the same breed. In the USA, papillon are allowed to breed with phalene and their matings can produce litters encompassing both varieties.

This is in contrast with what is allowed in nations governed by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale where the papillon and phalene are considered two distinctly separated dog breeds. So today we will be discovering what’s the main difference between the papillon and the phalene. Will you guess the right answer?

What’s the main difference between papillon and phalene?

A – Their distinguishing feature is their tails.

B – Their distinguishing feature is their size.

C – Their distinguishing feature is their coat color.

D – Their distinguishing feature is their ears.

The Correct Answer is: drum roll please…

The correct answer is D, the main difference between papillon and phalene is their ears.

Introducing the Phalene

The phalene is a variation of the papillon, and, as mentioned, the main distinguishing feature that differentiates the phalene from the papillon is the ears. The phalene has dropped ears. The American Kennel Club describes the ears as being similar to the erect type, but being completely down.

Phalene are known to be one of the oldest specimens of the toy spaniels, also known as Continental Toy Spaniels, from which they descend. Phalene are basically the earliest form of the papillon.

There is belief that it is towards the end of the 19th century that fanciers started breeding a version with the erect ears. This version was called papillon, meaning butterfly, while the version with dropped ears was called phalene, meaning night moth.

While some years ago, the popularity of phalene diminished to near extinction, fortunately nowadays there has been growing interest in breeding this variety.

“In judging the phalène it should be remembered that apart from the ears the variety is identical in all other respects to the papillon and should be judged accordingly.”~Papillon Club of America

Introducing the Papillon

The papillon dog breed derives its name from the large butterfly-like ears, fringed with hairs. Indeed, the word “papillon” is the French term for butterfly. The papillon dog breed is categorized by the American Kennel Club under the toy group, a breed group encompassing the smallest kinds of dogs.

The ears in the papillon are described as being erect and carried obliquely, moving like the spread wings of a butterfly. These small dogs were much cherished by royal families around Europe, with many of them being portrayed in works of art.

It was towards the end of the 19th century that the ears of the papillon become fashionable and the breed became quite popular, much more than the phalene and was therefore given the name of papillon due to the distinguishing feature.

“Suddenly, toward the end of the 19th Century, the erect ear carriage with its butterfly appearance became highly fashionable. In fact, it so caught the public fancy that the new term of “Papillon” quickly became the name for the entire breed.”~Rachel D. Kemmerer

References:

American Kennel Club, Papillon Breed Standard, retrieved from the web on December 27th, 2016
Papillon Club of America, retrieved from the web on December 27th, 2016

Photo Credits:

Spaniel_miniaturowy_kontynentalny_phalene na Światowej Wystawie Psów Rasowych w Poznaniu Pleple2000 – Own work CCBY3.0
Flickr Creative Commons, mika I love dog! CCBY2.0